The amygdala plays a crucial role in processing emotionally significant stimuli, relaying neural messages to higher cortical regions. Emotional reactivity, especially to negative events, has been known to engage limbic system structures, driving sympathetic nervous system responses. Direct correlations between structural and functional amygdala irregularities have been linked to increased vulnerability to depression. In addition, facial-emotion stimuli have been known to engage amygdala activity. This study engages in the variability of skin conductance in relation to depressive symptoms and age. Eighteen participants were divided into four distinct groups (depressive young adults, healthy young adults, depressive adults, and healthy adults). Participants viewed emotionally evoking facial-emotion stimuli in a block design while skin conductance was recorded. Group differences in SCR were analyzed to explore psychophysiological indicators of sustained depressive emotions across age groups. Although no significant difference between groups was found, the potential for age-dependent variability and the application of skin conductance in depression research could provide a non-invasive measurement of depressive symptoms. This study references my previous work (Fairback, 2024).

Amidst a growing loneliness crisis, generative AI agents are becoming essential social companions for humans, offering emotional support that fosters meaningful relationships. A key theoretical framework driving these relationships is anthropomorphism: the tendency to attribute human traits and emotions to non-human agents, particularly during times of social need. While prior research has extensively studied the downstream societal effects of human-AI relationships, such as providing emotional fulfillment for isolated individuals or the risk of unhealthy dependencies–far less is known about why humans anthropomorphize AI agents in the first place. Through two online experimental studies, this study investigates how social environment and user motivation influence mind ascription to AI agents. In Study 1, 310 U.S. based participants were asked to imagine interacting with a generative AI chatbot in one of three social contexts: alone, surrounded by others and not interacting, or surrounded by others and interacting. Participants then completed four pre-validated anthropomorphism scales measuring ascriptions of experience, agency, consciousness, and human likeness. The study found a significant effect of condition on experience ascription, but Dunn’s post-hoc test did not yield statistically significant differences between conditions. Study 2 is ongoing and extends upon Study 1 by investigating how social context and user interaction goals jointly influence anthropomorphism. Together, these studies offer new insights into how social presence and user motivation influence how people attribute human-like mental states to AI agents, shedding light on the conditions that foster emotionally significant relationships with artificial companions. Keywords: generative AI agent, human-AI relationship, anthropomorphism, social context, interaction goal

Allies are individuals who advocate on the behalf of a marginalized community that they are not a member of. Historically, allies have been essential in social justice efforts for the LGBT+ community and movements for that community. However, allies can sometimes fail to meet the expectations of LGBT+ communities; a reality that I refer to as failed allyship. Study 1 identifies approval-seeking behavior as a key marker of failed allyship, suggesting that perceived insincerity undermines the legitimacy of allyship efforts. Study 2 suggests that prejudice directed specifically toward transgender, nonbinary, and gender nonconforming individuals indicates selective support within the broader LGBT+ community. A recurring theme across both studies is the role of misinformation, emphasizing the need for more comprehensive and inclusive educational interventions. Together, these findings challenge the assumption that self-identification as an ally equates to meaningful support, and instead call for a more critical and informed approach to allyship.

Learning to allocate our resources effectively is a critical part of understanding cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes. College represents a unique and transitional period during which individuals develop the ability to make decisions and allocate resources independently, often for the first time, without parental influence. This balancing act can be particularly challenging and stressful for low-income students, who face numerous disadvantages, especially when juggling financial responsibilities and academic demands. While past studies have explored the relationship between stress, resource allocation, and income status, the directionality of these relationships remains unclear. To understand these relations, we adapted a task where participants had to balance gaining rewards with uncertainties to investigate whether low-income students will utilize their resources more in the present than conserving them for future needs. Our goal was not only to assess how low-income students manage resources when facing rewards and uncertainty, but how their resource use is affected under stressful conditions. We hypothesize that low-income college students will utilize their resources more than higher income students in environments of high uncertainty and stress. Keywords: Resource Allocation, Rewards, Income, Stress, Uncertainty

Superstitions are very common in the world of sports, and can be practiced both individually and collectively. Although often considered irrational, when these behaviors expand to the team level, they can become a shared belief that strengthens group cohesion, enhances motivation, and mentally prepares athletes for a game. This study investigates the role of team-wide superstitions and rituals in varsity sports at Princeton University, focusing on athletes’ perception of their impact on team dynamics and performance. Across 20 teams, 150 participants began the online survey and 75 completed it. Qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed, including team-level comparisons across key variables. The questionnaire assessed the frequency, inclusivity, and depth of each teams’ rituals, as well as athletes’ beliefs about their effects on game outcomes, team cohesion, motivation, and overall performance. Although statistical significance was not reached, several trends emerged in the descriptive analysis. Teams with stronger ritual cultures, defined by higher levels of frequency, inclusivity, and belief, reported that these rituals helped reduce anxiety, boost confidence, and bring players together before games. Correlation analyses revealed links between stronger ritual cultures and higher self-reported levels of team cohesion, motivation, and perceived performance. Interestingly, there was a positive association between teams’ season records and their belief that superstitions improve outcomes. Open-ended responses revealed that rituals and symbolic traditions were seen as integral to the team experience. These findings suggest that team rituals serve an important psychological and social function in competitive environments.

In the field of health psychology, food addiction has become recognized as a serious concern, given compounding evidence that ultra-processed foods can negatively impact health. However, during stressful times, individuals often gravitate towards these foods to experience momentary relief from their struggles. If college students frequently rely on food for emotional relief, will they face an increased likelihood of becoming addicted to ultra-processed foods, therefore putting themselves at higher risk for future mental and physical health obstacles? 150 students in Study 1 at Princeton University showed that emotional eating indicated the likelihood of co-occurring food addiction, with higher scores on the Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 (YFAS 2.0) positively correlated with scores on the Emotional Eating Scale-II (EES-II). These findings also indicated significant differences based on gender and athletic participation, with women and athletes scoring higher on both scales. However, in contrast to existing literature, no significant racial differences were found. Could these findings be due to the ultra-processed nature of the food environment in the United States, and if so, could results be replicated in South Korea, a country historically known for a diet consisting of healthful ingredients? In Study 2, 196 students from universities around Seoul, South Korea completed the same survey consisting of the YFAS 2.0 and EES-II scales. Results showed that, similar to Princeton students, participant scores on the two scales were positively correlated. However, South Korean university students had significantly higher scores for emotional eating (36.65 > 20.17) and food addiction (31.06 > 21.00) than those at Princeton. Due to strict beauty standards and an increasingly ultra-processed diet in Korea, the results from this thesis indicate that it is essential to understand the psychology behind social and cultural influences to encourage healthier dietary habits around the world

For many decades there has been research done on the concept of memory, and how humans recall memories. Most important to the present study is the field vs. observer framework of memory recollection that has been discovered. In which, field perspective memories are ones that are remembered as if the person, themself, is reliving a memory through their own eyes. Observer memories are ones that are remembered through a more removed visual perspective of watching one’s past self in the memory. The current study uses that scaffolding and applies it to a new context: photo taking and viewing. The study employs two conditions: a selfie condition and a non-selfie condition, for a total of 83 participants across both. It also utilizes a two part design. For Part 1, which was completed in person at emotion provoking events, both conditions got their picture taken, either by themselves if they were in the selfie condition, or by the researcher if they were in the non-selfie condition. After their picture was taken, all participants took an affect questionnaire (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, or “PANAS”) to evaluate their momentary emotional state. Part 2, which was an online survey, was sent to participants via email eight days after their completion of Part 1. In this survey, participants viewed their image from Part 1, then completed the PANAS questionnaire again, to see if viewing their image re-evoked the same emotions they experienced when their image was taken. Viewing the selfie condition image is meant to simulate a field perspective, and viewing the non-selfie condition image is meant to simulate an observer perspective. Then, they completed a color/memory task. This task used three items, a frog plushie, a pompom, and a mug, all of which were present in the background of all the participant images from Part 1. In the Part 2 survey, grayscale pictures of those three items were shown to participants and they were asked to indicate what color they remembered each being. There were two hypotheses of the study: 1) the non-selfie condition would more accurately emotionally reexperience the event the photo was taken at when participants looked at their image on a later date, 2) the selfie condition would better remember the event their photo was taken at when looking at their image on a later date. The results of the affect questionnaires were used to evaluate the first hypothesis, and although the data showed support in favor of the hypothesis, these results were not statistically significant. On the other hand, the color/ memory task was used to evaluate the second hypothesis, and the results were also in support of the hypothesis. For the frog plushie and the pompom, the results were just about (frog plushie), or were (pompom), statistically significant, however results for the mug were not statistically significant. This inconsistency highlighted some of the limitations of the study’s design. But, overall, this study can still be used in a general sense to explore how photo taking and subsequent photo viewing, which is ever present in today’s world, impacts our emotional states and our memory.

Empathy supports social connection and well-being while counter-empathy can weaken relationships and promote conflict. Compassion-based interventions such as loving-kindness meditation (LKM) have been shown to increase feelings of social connectedness and reduce self-focus. However, the impact of LKM on both empathy (measured through both positive and negative empathy) and counter-empathy (measured through schadenfreude and gluckschmerz) remains unexplored. The present study explored whether a brief, 9-minute LKM could increase empathy and reduce counter-empathy compared to a neutral visualization meditation. Forty-two undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either the LKM or control condition. As an implicit measure of empathy and counter-empathy, participants rated how good or bad they felt in response to 32 everyday scenarios both before and after the meditation. These ratings captured four outcomes: positive empathy, negative empathy, schadenfreude, and gluckschmerz. Results showed the LKM group experienced significantly greater increases in both positive and negative empathy compared to the control condition. Although both groups showed reductions in counter-empathy (both schadenfreude and gluckschmerz), these changes did not differ significantly amongst the groups. Exploratory analyses suggested that greater focus and adherence during meditation may be linked to lower counter-empathy. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of a brief loving-kindness meditation on significantly increasing empathy. Future research should explore how to best tailor loving-kindness meditations to effectively reduce counter-empathy.

Keywords: empathy, counter-empathy, loving-kindness meditation, schadenfreude, gluckschmerz, compassion intervention

Chronic illness is an increasingly urgent global issue, affecting nearly one-third of adults worldwide. Beyond biomedical challenges, chronic conditions are strongly linked to elevated rates of mental illness and psychological disorders. Despite this, dominant medical models prioritize physical symptom management over the psychological experiences of illness and the narratives people construct to make sense of it. This study draws on narrative psychology to examine how individuals with chronic illness frame and communicate their illness experiences—and whether these narrative processes relate to mental health. A total of 149 adults with chronic physical conditions wrote and edited two personal illness narratives (a high point and a low point) for imagined audiences either with or without shared illness experience. Narratives were analyzed for lexical change (edit quantity, cosine similarity), typology (Chaos, Quest, Restitution), and emotional themes (e.g., Turmoil, Growth). Contrary to predictions, audience framing had no significant effect on editing behavior or narrative content. However, event type did: low-point narratives were more uniform and emotionally negative, while high points were more diverse and individualized. Most strikingly, narrative type—particularly Quest narratives marked by agency and meaning—predicted greater life satisfaction, even among participants with worse illness severity. Participants with a Chaos–Quest pairing (Chaos low-point, Quest high-point) reported the highest well-being, suggesting that psychological resilience may stem not from denying or erasing suffering, but from narratively integrating it with purpose and agency. These findings position narrative identity not just as a reflection of mental health in chronic illness, but as a potential pathway toward it. Keywords: narrative identity, chronic illness, mental health, audience effect, master narratives

Black students attending predominantly white institutions (PWIs) frequently encounter racial discrimination in academic settings, which can negatively impact their emotional well-being and academic motivation. Although prior research has examined coping strategies in response to racial stress, few studies have considered how the power of the perpetrator—specifically, whether the source is a professor or peer—shapes these decisions. This study investigated the coping strategies Black students expected to use when facing racial discrimination and whether those strategies differed based on perpetrator power. Drawing from Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, the study examined the likelihood of using engagement (e.g., confrontation) and disengagement (e.g., avoidance) strategies, as well as the perceived effectiveness of these coping types in managing emotional responses. It also explored the potential influence of gender on coping preferences. A total of 187 Black undergraduate students completed a randomized, within-subjects vignette-based survey with scenarios involving racial discrimination from either a professor or peer. Participants rated their emotional responses, likelihood of using various coping strategies, and the perceived effectiveness of each. Results showed a strong overall preference for engagement over disengagement coping, with engagement coping rated as significantly more effective. Contrary to expectations, coping responses did not significantly differ based on perpetrator power or participant gender. These findings suggest that, while coping preferences may vary by individual, Black students tend to prioritize engagement strategies regardless of power dynamics, possibly as a way to assert agency in racially charged academic environments.

While suicide is something that impacts all Americans, disproportionately impacts certain populations—United States college students among them. Though college students have access to internal health care through their university health centers, a luxury that most Americans do not have, it is still the 2nd leading cause of death among their population. This study aims to explore clinical practices and the use of evidence-based practices in university health centers. By asking clinicians what tools and strategies they use to screen and prevent suicide, the barriers they encounter when doing so, and testing their knowledge on the most effective evidence-based prevention strategy, safety planning, we aim to understand the effectivity of suicide prevention practices being implemented. Results were mixed. While some results highlighted promising practices and positive patient outcomes, others exposed gaps in clinicians’ knowledge and training. Results also confirmed barriers that clinicians tend to encounter in other clinical settings while reporting new barriers that are only present in university health centers. Ultimately, however, there is not enough research done in this area. Both researchers and universities share a responsibility to examine this matter further to strengthen efforts to support the health and well-being of their students.

Teacher-student ethnicity match has been consistently linked to positive student outcomes across diverse populations, including enhanced academic performance and improved behavioral outcomes. Despite growing populations of Asian American and Asian International students in U.S. universities, the relationship between teacher-student ethnicity match and outcomes for these specific populations remains understudied. The present study investigates this relationship through three critical classroom experiences: respect for teachers, sense of belonging, and adherence to teacher instructions. Using a 2 (National Identity: Asian International/Asian American) × 2 (Professor Race: Asian/non-Asian) experimental design with vignettes depicting hypothetical classroom scenarios, we examined these dynamics in university contexts. Contrary to established ethnic matching literature predicting positive outcomes with same-race teachers, results revealed that neither Asian American nor Asian International participants were significantly impacted by professor ethnicity in their classroom experiences. However, Asian International participants demonstrated significantly stronger cultural values compared to their Asian American counterparts. These findings challenge prevailing assumptions about ethnic matching effects and provide valuable insights that could inform more inclusive teaching practices by enhancing understanding of how national identity influences educational experiences for these distinct student populations.

Since the publication of Katherine Phillips’ landmark 2000 guide for dermatologists and cosmetic surgeons, the clinical understanding of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) has undergone significant transformation. This thesis revisits and expands Phillips’ foundational work, offering novel insights that address the dramatic sociocultural shifts of the past two decades—most notably, the meteoric rise of social media, the growing prevalence of BDD in adolescents and young adults, and the increasing normalization of cosmetic enhancement. These contemporary forces have reshaped how BDD manifests, is perceived, and is (often inadequately) treated. By synthesizing current psychiatric, dermatologic, and psychological literature, this thesis highlights the limitations of aesthetic interventions in treating BDD and reinforces the importance of early psychiatric recognition. It introduces new data on neurobiological correlates of the disorder, demographic shifts in onset and severity, and emerging digital treatment modalities such as app-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The work uniquely contextualizes BDD within a modern ecosystem of algorithmically curated beauty ideals, digital avoidance behaviors, and growing mental health stigma, particularly among younger, gender-diverse, and neurodivergent populations. Crucially, this thesis offers a novel framework for integrating psychiatric screening tools and interdisciplinary collaboration into dermatologic and cosmetic care. It provides practical clinical recommendations, an updated ethical lens for aesthetic practitioners, and a forward-looking call to action for systemic reform. In doing so, it advances the field beyond Phillips’ original scope—bridging psychological and aesthetic medicine to more effectively recognize, prevent, and treat BDD in the 21st century.

Exploration is a cornerstone of early learning, yet it remains unclear whether toddlers use it not only to investigate the world around them but also to probe their emerging abilities. This thesis examines whether young children are intrinsically motivated to resolve uncertainty about their own competence through play. Across two experiments, toddlers were presented with pairs of practical life toys—one previously explored independently (unconfounded) and one explored in a way that left their own role ambiguous (confounded). In Experiment 1, toddlers systematically preferred the confounded toy, suggesting a drive to explore their own competence. Experiment 2 extended this finding by introducing tasks of varying difficulty. Pilot data revealed that toddlers’ preferences to explore the confounded toy increased with task difficulty, providing preliminary evidence that toddlers selectively explore toys when doing so provides information about their own competence—but not when the toys are trivial. Together, these findings suggest that toddlers are not just curious about how the world works—they are also motivated to understand how they work within it. This early sensitivity to self-relevant uncertainty may serve as a foundation for metacognitive development and learning motivation later in life.

As digital environments continue to become a central part of our social interaction, the ways individuals construct their virtual identities have become an increasingly important subject of research, offering unique insights into psychological functioning. This study explores how mental health symptoms of depression, anxiety, and other related symptoms influence how we create and use avatars. The sample included 154 undergraduate students at Princeton University completing the study in exchange for course credit. Participants completed demographic questions, avatar-specific questions, and validated psychological measures assessing depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (GAD-7), social anxiety (SIAS), self-esteem (RSES), body image (BISS), and fear of negative evaluation (BFNE). Results indicated that fear of negative evaluation was the most robust predictor of avatar idealization, suggesting that those with this fear may create idealized avatars as a way of online social protection. Depression showed modest associations with idealization, with elevated symptoms being significantly related to anxiety over avatar perception. Interestingly, socioeconomic status emerged as a significant predictor of both avatar idealization and consistency across platforms, with participants from lower-income households reporting higher levels of both of these behaviors. Additional exploratory analyses were also conducted, although results were largely insignificant. Combined, these findings highlight the psychological nature of avatar creation, and how the digital representations we create can serve as both a mirror of how we’re feeling internally and a tool for online social navigation.

Keywords: Avatar Design, Digital self-perception, Depression, Anxiety, Virtual Identity

Linguistic differences are pervasive among many neurodivergent populations. Autistic individuals, for example, commonly engage with and use language rigidly, as is exemplified by their echolalia, pronoun reversals, and reliance on fixed phrases. Some of their linguistic differences may be explained by the fact that much of language use and comprehension necessitate flexibility–namely, generalizing learned forms and functions by extending them to new contexts. The Flexible Language and Meaning Extension (FLAME) hypothesis, developed in the Princeton Psychology of Language Lab, postulates that autistic individuals exhibit language differences due to the challenges they experience with linguistic tasks that necessitate FLAME as compared to linguistic tasks that do not require such flexibility and extension of meaning. Building on experimental research that supports this hypothesis, this thesis examines whether other neurodivergent populations, including a subpopulation of autistic people who exhibit remarkable strengths in languages, also experience challenges with FLAME. While pursuing this question, I provide a review of literature on four neurodivergent populations: autistic linguistic savants, other autistic people, people with Fragile X syndrome, and people with Down syndrome. Particular attention is paid to the rigid versus flexible aspects of each group’s language. In addition to synthesizing the literature in this area, evidence is provided that all four of these populations exhibit linguistic rigidity and possible challenges with flexible language use. Further research, however, is necessary to more thoroughly understand neurodivergent language, particularly whether language differences are generally due to difficulties with FLAME. Keywords: language, linguistic flexibility, linguistic rigidity, neurodivergence

First-generation, low-income (FLI) students face unique cultural challenges as they transition into higher education. Cultural mismatch theory has primarily focused on how students’ values match with those of their academic institutions. However, this approach often overlooks how students simultaneously experience match or mismatch with their home environments, especially as they learn to navigate new cultural expectations in college. This narrow focus leaves out the ways students negotiate dual cultural contexts and the strategies they use to do so. The current study expands this framework by examining cultural mismatch both with institutions and with home, as well as the strategies students use to manage this mismatch. We investigate how these factors relate to students’ sense of belonging and compare patterns across private universities, public universities, and community colleges. Using a cross-sectional survey design (N = 151), we assessed students’ cultural orientations, cultural match, and the strategies they use to navigate between their home and institution. Results revealed that cultural mismatch, particularly between students and their institutions, was consistently associated with reduced belonging–particularly for students at community colleges. Acculturation strategies also shaped outcomes: students who tried to integrate their home and college cultures or assimilated into college culture were linked to greater belonging, while those who switched between culture or resisted changing were associated with lower institutional belonging. These findings underscore how institutional context shapes the impact of cultural navigation and highlight the need for tailored supports that promote FLI students’ belonging and affirm students’ cultural identities across different college environments.

Social support is an essential component of emotional and physical well-being and has been implicated in cardiovascular disease risk as well as the experience of daily stress. This study primarily seeks to understand potential differences in receiving versus giving social support and their relationships with cardiovascular disease (CVD), along with an auxiliary focus on the relationship between daily stress and CVD. Through a secondary analysis of the Midlife in the United States study (Wave II), we examined the relationship between daily stress and CVD, the relationship between receiving versus giving social support and CVD, and how these two forms of social support interact in their links to CVD. We found that daily stress does not robustly predict cardiovascular disease, but both receiving and giving social support are associated with a reduced cardiovascular disease risk. However, giving social support ceases to confer protective cardiovascular health benefits on the giver when they receive high levels of social support. Moreover, receiving social support was consistently associated with a lower CVD risk, but the effect was greater when participants were giving a low level of support. These results illustrate that the effects of receiving and giving social support are not necessarily equivalent and should be considered distinctly and simultaneously, rather than in aggregate, in efforts to mitigate cardiovascular disease risk.

Overcoming interruptions requires the use of prospective memory (PM), where people must remember to do something in the future. Traditional theories of PM propose a dichotomy in its underlying mechanisms, suggesting that PM tasks are either supported by working memory (WM) or episodic memory (EM). In this study, we investigate the possibility that these two memory systems work together to support people’s ability to resume a primary task when interrupted by a competing, secondary task. To test this, we ran a behavioral experiment in which participants (N = 52) completed two conditions within a dual-task interruption paradigm. In the experimental condition, participants were given unique, task-relevant images in the background of the primary task. In the control condition, no images appeared in the background. We predicted that these images would act as memory aids, enhancing people’s ability to resume the primary task by eliciting a “hybrid” memory strategy whereby EM enables the binding of the interrupted task to the background image and WM maintains the image throughout the duration of the interruption to facilitate EM retrieval at the resumption. When comparing resumption success rates across conditions, we do not find evidence that would support our prediction. We provide lines of future research to investigate the potential nuances that integrate EM and WM in human cognition.