Social support is an essential component of emotional and physical well-being and has been implicated in cardiovascular disease risk as well as the experience of daily stress. This study primarily seeks to understand potential differences in receiving versus giving social support and their relationships with cardiovascular disease (CVD), along with an auxiliary focus on the relationship between daily stress and CVD. Through a secondary analysis of the Midlife in the United States study (Wave II), we examined the relationship between daily stress and CVD, the relationship between receiving versus giving social support and CVD, and how these two forms of social support interact in their links to CVD. We found that daily stress does not robustly predict cardiovascular disease, but both receiving and giving social support are associated with a reduced cardiovascular disease risk. However, giving social support ceases to confer protective cardiovascular health benefits on the giver when they receive high levels of social support. Moreover, receiving social support was consistently associated with a lower CVD risk, but the effect was greater when participants were giving a low level of support. These results illustrate that the effects of receiving and giving social support are not necessarily equivalent and should be considered distinctly and simultaneously, rather than in aggregate, in efforts to mitigate cardiovascular disease risk.

Working memory (WM) plays a critical role in maintaining and manipulating visual information in the absence of sensory input. While attractor dynamics, where memory representations stabilize around specific locations in memory space, have been observed in simpler visual domains like color or orientation, it remains unclear whether similar mechanisms apply to complex stimuli such as natural faces. The present study aims to explore whether repeated exposure to specific faces can induce attractor dynamics in working memory for natural images. Using a continuous report paradigm with VAE-generated face stimuli, participants were shown target faces at varying frequencies and later asked to recall the target face from a set of images. Although some participants showed memory biases and attractor-like structures near the target face, these effects were not robust across the group. A statistical learning phase, where participants were passively exposed to a target face, did not induce a consistent shift in memory responses. These results suggest that while attractor dynamics may generalize to natural stimuli, they are resistant to passive statistical learning manipulations, highlighting the need for stronger or behaviorally relevant interventions to modulate attractor dynamics. Future research should investigate the impact of more active learning strategies, cognitive load, and long-term memory tasks on attractor stability and flexibility.

Linguistic differences are pervasive among many neurodivergent populations. Autistic individuals, for example, commonly engage with and use language rigidly, as is exemplified by their echolalia, pronoun reversals, and reliance on fixed phrases. Some of their linguistic differences may be explained by the fact that much of language use and comprehension necessitate flexibility–namely, generalizing learned forms and functions by extending them to new contexts. The Flexible Language and Meaning Extension (FLAME) hypothesis, developed in the Princeton Psychology of Language Lab, postulates that autistic individuals exhibit language differences due to the challenges they experience with linguistic tasks that necessitate FLAME as compared to linguistic tasks that do not require such flexibility and extension of meaning. Building on experimental research that supports this hypothesis, this thesis examines whether other neurodivergent populations, including a subpopulation of autistic people who exhibit remarkable strengths in languages, also experience challenges with FLAME. While pursuing this question, I provide a review of literature on four neurodivergent populations: autistic linguistic savants, other autistic people, people with Fragile X syndrome, and people with Down syndrome. Particular attention is paid to the rigid versus flexible aspects of each group’s language. In addition to synthesizing the literature in this area, evidence is provided that all four of these populations exhibit linguistic rigidity and possible challenges with flexible language use. Further research, however, is necessary to more thoroughly understand neurodivergent language, particularly whether language differences are generally due to difficulties with FLAME. Keywords: language, linguistic flexibility, linguistic rigidity, neurodivergence

As language policies and ideologies change within the United States, researchers have sought out to investigate deeper relationships between the general U.S. population and their perspectives on bilingualism. Previous research has suggested that bilingualism can provide the individual with various cognitive and social benefits, but this insight does not always align with what the average American parent believes about the use of more than one language in the home or schooling. Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the relationships between parental attitudes and identities in relation to bilingualism and their children’s own language uses and experiences–particularly the enrollment of children in bilingual education and their children’s bilingual ability. Through a survey asking about parent demographics, child demographics, and parental attitudes, the data supported the hypotheses that parents who did not identify with or expressed negative attitudes about speaking more than one language were associated with lower enrollment of their children in bilingual education programs and lower bilingual fluency levels than children of parents who identified with multiple language identities or felt that bilingualism was more valuable for their children. The results of this study suggest that parental perspectives of the value of bilingualism can drive particular decision-making and behaviors that can influence how their children acquire language and interact with the use of more than one language in their daily life.

Previous work has demonstrated the importance of social support and the deleterious effects of peer victimization on mental health in LGBTQ+ youth. However, most studies on this topic to date have focused on samples with few trans youth. In this study, we assess the relations between social support, peer victimization, and mental health (anxiety, depression, and positive affect) in a sample of LGBTQ+ youth ages 12-17 (N = 351; M=14.4, SD=1.6) that includes an especially large sample of transgender youth (N=283), allowing us to assess the degree to which these relations hold in that sample. A subset of these youth completed the same measures twice (N = 142; years between responses: M=1.5, SD=0.5), allowing us to assess these relations longitudinally, as well. Consistent with our pre-registered hypotheses, cross-sectional analyses showed social support predicted better mental health, and victimization predicted worse mental health. Unexpectedly, we did not observe a buffering effect: having social support did not reduce the association between victimization and poor mental health. We then explored if changes in social support and victimization over time predicted changes in mental health, with mixed findings. Overall, our findings are consistent with prior research in suggesting that identity-related support and identity-related victimization are associated with LGBTQ+ youth’s well-being.

How do people decide when and how to collaborate during cognitively demanding tasks? This thesis investigates the dynamics of joint visual working memory, focusing on the mechanisms by which individuals coordinate attention and form collaborative strategies under varying task constraints. Utilizing a novel spatial working memory task in which pairs of participants viewed a grid of images, we examined when participants chose to collaborate, whether they adopted spatial specialization strategies, and how these behaviors differed according to changes in task complexity. Participants completed a series of trials in both solo and dyadic conditions, each involving 10 seconds to encode images hidden under tiles across one of five grid sizes (4, 8, 16, 24, or 36 images). Results showed that participants performed better in dyads than alone, most notably within mid-sized grid conditions. Dyads who adopted collaborative strategies – such as dividing the grid into regions – tended to form these conventions early, even without verbal communication. However, not all participants collaborated effectively, as some displayed no significant behavioral differences between solo and dyadic task performance. Together, these results suggest that humans can tacitly arrive at collaborative conventions to split up cognitively demanding tasks, and can moderately calibrate their strategies based on the potential benefits of collaboration on memory performance.

Previous studies have brought awareness to the factors that perpetuate the Black-White achievement gap including a lack of self-efficacy and sense of belonging in Black students in the school system. This experiment focuses in on these factors and aims to find a solution to improve them in Black students through randomly placing Black college-aged participants into 5 conditional groups. These conditions included graphs that represent the perception of diversity norms or trends operationalized, showing the percentage of Black faculty members in a hypothetical university over 5 years reflecting increase or progression, a consistently high percentage or high stability, a consistently low percentage or low stability, or a decrease or regression, and lastly the control condition presented only one year in the graph. After viewing the graphs, the participants were asked to answer questions based on sense of belonging, self-efficacy, and the measure of how much an individual believes their identity aligns to another’s identity (perceived identity compatibility). The results showed the participants having most significant increase in sense of belonging when in the progression condition followed by the high stability condition and with the low stability and regression conditions producing the least sense of belonging in participants compared to the other conditions. However, there were no significant differences for the self-efficacy questions and the perceived identity compatibility questions between each condition which followed the same trend. The sense of belonging results suggest that universities may benefit from improving upon the number of minorities in their faculty but also making students aware of the diversity in the faculty over time.

Since the publication of Katherine Phillips’ landmark 2000 guide for dermatologists and cosmetic surgeons, the clinical understanding of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) has undergone significant transformation. This thesis revisits and expands Phillips’ foundational work, offering novel insights that address the dramatic sociocultural shifts of the past two decades—most notably, the meteoric rise of social media, the growing prevalence of BDD in adolescents and young adults, and the increasing normalization of cosmetic enhancement. These contemporary forces have reshaped how BDD manifests, is perceived, and is (often inadequately) treated. By synthesizing current psychiatric, dermatologic, and psychological literature, this thesis highlights the limitations of aesthetic interventions in treating BDD and reinforces the importance of early psychiatric recognition. It introduces new data on neurobiological correlates of the disorder, demographic shifts in onset and severity, and emerging digital treatment modalities such as app-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The work uniquely contextualizes BDD within a modern ecosystem of algorithmically curated beauty ideals, digital avoidance behaviors, and growing mental health stigma, particularly among younger, gender-diverse, and neurodivergent populations. Crucially, this thesis offers a novel framework for integrating psychiatric screening tools and interdisciplinary collaboration into dermatologic and cosmetic care. It provides practical clinical recommendations, an updated ethical lens for aesthetic practitioners, and a forward-looking call to action for systemic reform. In doing so, it advances the field beyond Phillips’ original scope—bridging psychological and aesthetic medicine to more effectively recognize, prevent, and treat BDD in the 21st century.

With an ever diversifying student body, standardized approaches to teaching are failing to meet the needs of all students, leading to persistent achievement gaps across the socioeconomic status (SES) spectrum. Lower-SES students face more barriers to success than higher-SES peers across subject areas, including math. Research on these disparities has highlighted the role of cultural mismatch in formal education, or a gap in the way educational content is engaged with at home versus at school. In some research, home math engagement patterns have been explored in regard to abstract versus practical orientations. This cultural mismatch is thought to present challenges to lower-SES students’ understanding that are unrelated to differences in knowledge. Culturally relevant pedagogy has arisen as a potential solution to this by promoting teaching that leverages students’ home cultures. Prior research has demonstrated the importance of student motivation and perception of relevance for math achievement outcomes. In a study with N = 93 6- and 7-year-olds, we investigated (1) whether aligning formal math instruction with the manner of home math engagement positively impacts learning and motivation, (2) whether home math engagement differs across SES, and (3) what the overall impacts of practical versus abstract math orientations are on student outcomes. Using a parental questionnaire and an instructional math intervention with second graders, we examined patterns of home math engagement and assessed participant outcomes under different instructional conditions. Results revealed that (1) alignment between formal learning and home math engagement did not significantly impact learning or motivation, (2) home math engagement was systematically linked with the nature of parents’ jobs, and (3) there was no significant advantage to practical versus abstract math orientations for learning or motivation. This study offers insight into equitable education practices.

Prior socio-psychological research has found that a belief in social progress motivates prosocial behaviors and emotional and behavioral well-being in individuals (Rutjens et al., 2010). However, identity-related adversities may lead some populations in the U.S., namely South Asian Americans, to have more negative beliefs about social progress, compared to many other U.S. adults (Chandrasekhar, 2003; Hur & Ruttan, 2023; Verma, 2019). Moreover, because pessimism is a key trait of depression (Roepke & Seligman, 2016), depressed populations may believe in social regress. It is thus crucial to study South Asian Americans with depressive traits who may believe in social regress and consequently experience decreased well-being. This thesis explains how South Asian Americans with varying depressive levels may perceive social progress. A study with 335 participants finds support for the hypotheses that 1) there is a relationship between participants’ depressive levels and their social progress beliefs but not their technological/scientific progress beliefs, and 2) pessimism mediates the relationship between depressive levels and social progress beliefs. This study finds neither a relationship between participants’ ethnic background and their technological/scientific progress beliefs nor support for the hypothesis that South Asian Americans with higher depressive levels are more pessimistic about social progress than their European American counterparts. This paper seeks to enhance culturally relevant interventions that may promote the belief in social progress and thus greater well-being in South Asian Americans. Keywords: social progress, depression, pessimism, South Asian Americans

This paper aims to understand the material consequences of anti-trans laws, specifically those restricting access to gender-affirming care. In this review, framed by the psychological theories of Structural Stigma and Minority Stress, I examine the worry level and discussions about anti-trans laws of transgender youth and their parents (Goldenberg et al., 2020a; Meyer, 1995). I studied 2023 survey responses from 324 families of transgender youth from across the U.S. to understand how families are responding to anti-transgender laws and whether the laws are driving families to relocate (Gülgöz et al., 2019). Overall, worry about the laws for participants personally, for others they know, and for the transgender community in general was higher for those more at risk of losing access to gender-affirming care. Income was not a significant predictor of interest in moving, rather worry about the anti-trans laws was. Qualitative data showed high distress among families relating to these laws, a strong desire for parents to ensure their youth’s safety, and families reported discussing moving depending on if their current circumstances would continue to be safe. The data indicated palpable fear among the community. Further work should be conducted to include more of the at-risk population as well as the long-term consequences of the laws as they go into effect across the United States.

As digital environments continue to become a central part of our social interaction, the ways individuals construct their virtual identities have become an increasingly important subject of research, offering unique insights into psychological functioning. This study explores how mental health symptoms of depression, anxiety, and other related symptoms influence how we create and use avatars. The sample included 154 undergraduate students at Princeton University completing the study in exchange for course credit. Participants completed demographic questions, avatar-specific questions, and validated psychological measures assessing depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (GAD-7), social anxiety (SIAS), self-esteem (RSES), body image (BISS), and fear of negative evaluation (BFNE). Results indicated that fear of negative evaluation was the most robust predictor of avatar idealization, suggesting that those with this fear may create idealized avatars as a way of online social protection. Depression showed modest associations with idealization, with elevated symptoms being significantly related to anxiety over avatar perception. Interestingly, socioeconomic status emerged as a significant predictor of both avatar idealization and consistency across platforms, with participants from lower-income households reporting higher levels of both of these behaviors. Additional exploratory analyses were also conducted, although results were largely insignificant. Combined, these findings highlight the psychological nature of avatar creation, and how the digital representations we create can serve as both a mirror of how we’re feeling internally and a tool for online social navigation.

Keywords: Avatar Design, Digital self-perception, Depression, Anxiety, Virtual Identity

Overcoming interruptions requires the use of prospective memory (PM), where people must remember to do something in the future. Traditional theories of PM propose a dichotomy in its underlying mechanisms, suggesting that PM tasks are either supported by working memory (WM) or episodic memory (EM). In this study, we investigate the possibility that these two memory systems work together to support people’s ability to resume a primary task when interrupted by a competing, secondary task. To test this, we ran a behavioral experiment in which participants (N = 52) completed two conditions within a dual-task interruption paradigm. In the experimental condition, participants were given unique, task-relevant images in the background of the primary task. In the control condition, no images appeared in the background. We predicted that these images would act as memory aids, enhancing people’s ability to resume the primary task by eliciting a “hybrid” memory strategy whereby EM enables the binding of the interrupted task to the background image and WM maintains the image throughout the duration of the interruption to facilitate EM retrieval at the resumption. When comparing resumption success rates across conditions, we do not find evidence that would support our prediction. We provide lines of future research to investigate the potential nuances that integrate EM and WM in human cognition.

Previous researchers have investigated decisions under risk and uncertainty in the pursuit of better understanding the psychological factors that influence how we formulate our decisions. Several theories for modeling decision-making behavior have developed as a result of this research, such as expected value theory and prospect theory. This study expands on the previous experiment conducted by Gonzalez and Wu (1999), which investigated distortions of probability relative to stated probabilities, by exploring the effect that financial literacy has on probability distortion. 53 subjects participated in this study, all current Princeton University undergraduate students. Subjects completed a five-question financial literacy assessment (Task 1) followed by a revealed probability distortion task (Task 2). It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse relationship between subjects’ financial literacy scores and their degree of probability distortion, given subjects with higher financial literacy scores having a stronger ability to understand the characteristics of probabilities and rational decision-making models (Rieger et al., 2015, p. 644). It was further hypothesized that this relationship would not exist for measures of diminishing marginal utility, the other determinant of risk. A correlation analysis of the results from Tasks 1 and 2 found a significant and positive relationship between financial literacy and risk-seeking behavior. We then estimated parameters of prospect theory that best fit each subject’s choices in Task 2. Analysis of the financial literacy scores and the estimated parameters of prospect theory suggest that this relationship is mediated by probability distortion, and not by diminishing marginal utility, as hypothesized. The results from this study offer novel insights into the effect that financial literacy has on decision-making under uncertainty and support the notion that initiatives to improve financial literacy can benefit decision-making.

Black students attending predominantly white institutions (PWIs) frequently encounter racial discrimination in academic settings, which can negatively impact their emotional well-being and academic motivation. Although prior research has examined coping strategies in response to racial stress, few studies have considered how the power of the perpetrator—specifically, whether the source is a professor or peer—shapes these decisions. This study investigated the coping strategies Black students expected to use when facing racial discrimination and whether those strategies differed based on perpetrator power. Drawing from Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, the study examined the likelihood of using engagement (e.g., confrontation) and disengagement (e.g., avoidance) strategies, as well as the perceived effectiveness of these coping types in managing emotional responses. It also explored the potential influence of gender on coping preferences. A total of 187 Black undergraduate students completed a randomized, within-subjects vignette-based survey with scenarios involving racial discrimination from either a professor or peer. Participants rated their emotional responses, likelihood of using various coping strategies, and the perceived effectiveness of each. Results showed a strong overall preference for engagement over disengagement coping, with engagement coping rated as significantly more effective. Contrary to expectations, coping responses did not significantly differ based on perpetrator power or participant gender. These findings suggest that, while coping preferences may vary by individual, Black students tend to prioritize engagement strategies regardless of power dynamics, possibly as a way to assert agency in racially charged academic environments.

In an increasingly digital world, brands seek to connect authentically with Generation Z audiences through platforms such as TikTok. This study examines how explicit acknowledgment of Gen Z authorship in TikTok-style advertisements influences audience perceptions of authenticity, humor, and connection. Participants (n = 195), all members of Gen Z, viewed one TikTok-style ad with slang (either with or without explicit acknowledgment of Gen Z authorship) and one traditional ad without slang. They then rated each advertisement on measures of authenticity, self-awareness, amusement, brand positivity, and engagement likelihood. Results from a series of one-way ANOVAs revealed that traditional ads were rated significantly more authentic and less effortful in their humor, while explicit Tiktok-style ads were rated as significantly more amusing. However, there were no significant effects of ad condition on perceived self-awareness, brand positivity, or engagement likelihood. These findings suggest that while cultural fluency and self-awareness are valuable marketing tools, overt signaling of cultural alignment may backfire, highlighting the importance of thoughtfulness and genuine connection when engaging Gen Z audiences.

This thesis explores the Attention Schema Theory (AST) as a computational framework for understanding consciousness and social cognition. Through a series of behavioral experiments, we test whether humans can distinguish real from artificial attention sequences based on gaze-like motion patterns. Participants consistently performed above chance, even under degraded visual conditions, and confidence ratings tracked performance—suggesting the presence of an internal model guiding judgments. Open-ended commentary further revealed partial introspective access to this modeling process. A follow-up fMRI study is discussed in support of AST’s proposed neural architecture, though the primary emphasis remains on behavioral evidence. I propose a multi-level refinement of AST, integrating predictive coding and a hierarchical account of awareness.

Keywords: attention schema, consciousness, predictive coding, social brain, fMRI, TPJ, meta-consciousness

Economic adversity is a well-established risk factor for poor mental health, particularly in low-income communities. Yet much of the literature focuses on what low-income families lack, rather than how they adapt. This thesis takes a strengths-based approach, examining whether family functioning can buffer the mental health effects of cumulative economic adversity. Using cross-sectional data from a larger longitudinal study (N = 276) based in a low to mid income area, we investigated three primary research questions: (1) Does cumulative economic adversity predict symptoms of depression and anxiety? (2) Is family functioning associated with mental health outcomes? (3) Does family functioning moderate the impact of economic adversity on mental health? We hypothesized that greater adversity would be linked to higher symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that stronger family functioning would be associated with fewer symptoms. We also expected that high-functioning families would buffer the effects of economic adversity on mental health outcomes. Findings supported the first two hypotheses. Cumulative economic adversity significantly predicted greater symptoms of depression and anxiety, while stronger family functioning was associated with better mental health. However, contrary to the third hypothesis, the mental health consequences of adversity were more pronounced among individuals in high-functioning families. This unexpected finding suggests that while strong relational processes promote well-being, they may not always buffer against the psychological toll of severe or prolonged economic stress. These results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of family resilience, highlighting that families can maintain high functioning even amid economic adversity and its mental health impacts. While strong family relationships offer critical support, they cannot fully offset the impacts of adversity. Programs that strengthen family processes may serve as a valuable complement to broader efforts to reduce inequality.

Infant-directed speech (IDS) is a form of caregiver communication characterized by high frequencies, wide pitch variations, repetition, and short phrases. However, caregiver depression significantly affects the quantity and quality of IDS, resulting in fewer exaggerated intonations, lower pitch, and reduced positive affect in speech. This study investigated the role of caregiver depression on pitch, given findings that IDS-based pitch serves as a communicative signal for children to modulate their attention. Additionally, we examined how caregiver responsiveness and at-home reading routines shapes toddlers’ responses to different pitches in speech. Participants included caregivers and their toddlers (ages 12 to 24 months). At the start of the study, caregivers completed questionnaires assessing depressive symptoms, parental responsiveness, and daily reading routines. Toddlers then watched a video of an actress describing toys using varied pitch contours, followed by a caregiver-led book-reading task. During the study, toddlers wore a heart rate (HR) monitor, with HR measuring attention to pitch. Results revealed that higher caregiver pitch during book reading was associated with increased toddler HR. Caregivers with more depressive symptoms used lower pitch during book reading, and their toddlers had lower HR responses. More responsive caregivers produced higher pitch during book reading. Analyses of at-home routines found that caregivers who read less frequently to their toddlers used higher pitches during the book-reading task, and their toddlers had greater HR differences between trials. These findings underscore the importance of pitch in shaping toddler attention, with caregiver mental health and reading routines being critical in influencing toddlers’ physiological responses to speech.

Individuals from lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds face disproportionate health challenges and poorer outcomes. While prior work suggests social influence may shape behavior more strongly in lower-SES groups, less is known about how SES relates to the broader factors that shape medical decisions. This study uses a three-part design to examine how SES influences which factors people rely on and how they respond to social input in medical decision-making: (1) a survey prompting qualitative reflections on past medical decisions (n = 50), (2) a survey rating the influence of various decision-making factors in hypothetical scenarios (n = 477), and (3) a randomized experimental task (n = 508). In Study 1, thematic analysis of open-ended responses identified five core influences on medical decisions—information sources, costs, sources of support, emotional or physical pain, and cultural or societal influences—with notable SES differences in how often each was mentioned. These themes informed the design of Study 2, which found that higher-SES participants rated most factors, including social norms and input from friends and family, as more influential than lower-SES participants—a surprising pattern given prior literature. Study 3 found no significant SES differences in how participants responded to social input in deciding whether to pursue a medical intervention supported or opposed by close others. Together, the findings suggest that SES shapes how people describe influence more than how they respond to it. They complicate narratives about greater social susceptibility among lower-SES individuals and highlight the role of context, communication style, and institutional familiarity in shaping medical decision-making.