When and How Much? Effects of Calcium Intake on Osteoporosis, Cardiovascular Disease, and Breast Cancer in Women

Abstract

This thesis examines the health and economic implications of calcium intake across the menopausal transition, focusing on three high-cost diseases that disproportionately affect aging women: cardiovascular issues, osteoporosis, and breast cancer. Using longitudinal data from the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN), I estimate individual fixed effects and baseline-adjusted linear probability models to assess how the amount, timing, and source of calcium intake influence disease outcomes. I find that very low calcium intake significantly increases the risk of cardiovascular conditions, especially in peri- and postmenopausal women, while even moderate deficiencies are linked to higher osteoporosis risk over time, with changes manifesting faster than severe deficiencies. High calcium intake may offer protective effects against breast cancer regardless of source. Dietary calcium is generally more beneficial than supplemental forms for heart outcomes and osteoporosis prevention. Findings highlight a promising and low-cost avenue for preventive care, with the potential to reduce future healthcare expenditures and improve population health outcomes for women.